Discrimination of Muslim minorities at work in Muslim majority countries: the case of Turkey and Pakistan

Abstract

Copyright © 2019 The Author(s). In the context of increased incidents of religious sectarianism in Turkey and Pakistan, two Muslim majority countries, this paper explicates the religious discrimination that Muslim minorities face at work. First, we examine religious diversity in both countries, and explore the identity and agency of religious minorities at work. We then draw on 17 interviews each with individuals from Muslim minority groups in Turkish and Pakistani workplaces, we demonstrate how religious discrimination is experienced in the context of a country (i.e., Turkey) where the secular system is under considerable strain and a country (i.e., Pakistan) where Islamic egalitarian principles enshrined in the national constitution have patchy implementation. The study reveals religiously inspired bias (Turkey and Pakistan),fealtry or biat (Turkey) and Takfiri extremism (Pakistan) as significant mechanisms by which intrafaith relations are shaped and religious ties serve as both a privilege and a disadvantage. Thus, the study uncovers a number of invisible constraints, which deteriorate the agency of religious minorities at work. We theorise what happens to religious equality at work when a secular or egalitarian system is challenged by a particular interpretation of religion.