A hierarchical and ontology-based taxonomy of stimuli–smart materials–transformation effects in 4D printing as a new interactive modality

Abstract

4D printing functions not merely as a smart manufacturing technique but as an interactive material technology: materials respond to human or environmental stimuli and generate a direct feedback loop. This study proposes a taxonomy that links Stimuli, Smart Materials, and Transformation Effects, developed through a combined Hierarchical Classification and Ontology-Based Classification approach grounded in a systematic literature review and ontology mapping. By organising complex stimulus–material–effect relationships into a designer-accessible structure, the taxonomy supports non-technical designers in identifying feasible pathways from intended interactions to material outcomes. It also provides a structured data foundation for developing 4D printing design guidelines and toolkits, enabling more direct translation of 4D printing concepts into real projects. Positioned as an interface between human intent and material expression, the proposed framework highlights how 4D printing can enable new forms of interaction design and fluid, responsive artefacts across design domains.