Optimizing of bread quality and sustainability: Evaluating the impact of conventional, microwaves and hybrid baking methods

Abstract

Baking is a final and one of the most important stages in the breadmaking process, shaping product quality, energy performance, and overall sustainability. Conventional baking methods is widely adopted but it is energy-intensive and often results with uneven heat distribution. This study evaluates the effects of three baking methods including conventional oven (CB), industrial solidstate microwave (IM), domestic microwave (DM) baking, and evaluates the sensorial and physicochemical properties of the resulting breads including moisture content, hardness, colour, specific volume, cell structure, and acrylamide levels, as well as energy consumption, cost, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A hybrid baking approach, combining CB with microwave baking (applied separately for IM and DM), was also investigated, and the resulting breads were analysed for the same quality attributes. In addition, temperature distribution and moisture variation were monitored during the baking processes for all baking modes. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was employed to optimise the baking parameters and identify the best baking conditions to maximise improved quality and sustainability performance. The results indicated that IM baked bread achieved the highest moisture content, while domestic microwave led to pronounced moisture loss. Colour analysis revealed that microwave- baked samples developed lighter crusts, whereas CB produced darker crusts due to the higher surface temperatures. Texture analysis showed that IM baking generated softer bread, while DM baking resulted in significantly highest hardness. Although conventional baking achieved the highest specific volume, microwavebaked breads exhibited more irregular crumb structures and lower acrylamide levels. Among all baking modes, IM baking proved to be the most energy-efficient and cost-effective, generating the lowest GHG emissions and therefore representing a more sustainable alternative. It also provided rapid and uniform heating with improved moisture preservation, whereas DM baking caused surface drying and poor internal hydration. Hybrid baking, particularly when incorporating IM, improved thermal uniformity and moisture preservation compared to CB. RSM optimisation further identified IM as the optimal method, achieving highest moisture retention, low hardness, and a desirability score of 0.865.